The application and development of spectroscopic techniques for minerals processing and the interface between bacteria and mineral surfaces.Techniques include: Synchrotron X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (SXPS); X-ray Absorption Near Edge Spectroscopy (XANES); Photoemission Electron Microscopy (PEEM); Scanning Photoelectron Microscopy (SPEM); Scanning Transmision X-ray Microscopy (STXM); Conventional XPS; Time of Flight Secondary IonMass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS); NanoSIMS